4. Religions and law in European countries

Introduction
In the current era of liberal democracies, state policies need to respect fundamental rights at all times: when making and developing policies, legislation, implementing these policies, etc. In other words: fundamental rights constitute the outer framework within which states need to ‘work’ and develop their policies, legislation and related practices. This is also the case in relation to the ever-increasing diversity of religions they are confronted with.





Source 1

Universal declaration of human rights, art. 18

“Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance”.

http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml#a18




The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is the first international declaration of Human Rights - older ones were adopted at a national level only. This text is a non-binding declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948 in Paris, partly in response to the atrocities and massive violations of human rights during World War II. The UDHR urges member nations to promote a number of human, civil, economic and social rights, asserting these rights are part of the "foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world".
The 18th article enunciates the principle of freedom of thought, conscience and religion. It is the basis and the reference for all international texts concerning this subject.
Religion is not reduced to worshipping only: indeed, the text explicitly provides that freedom of conscience and religion is not only a right at the individual level (having a religion or not), but can be manifested in collective worship and in teaching. Any law that would restrict the individual or collective expression of faith without good motives (like protection of public order) would be an infringement of the Declaration. This article was problematic for some Islamic countries (like Saudi Arabia which abstained to approve the Declaration during the vote) because it states the right to change his/her religion, a possibility that is contrary to the Islamic Law (shari'ah) according to which a Muslim believer is not afforded to leave Islam or should be considered as an “apostate”.
The enforcement of freedom of thought, conscience and religion ensures equality among all citizens in a democratic State, whatever they belong or do not belong to a religion or a convictional group. This not requires that the State itself be independent from any religious body. In some European countries like England or Denmark, one specific Church is “established” (has an official status) but their faithful should not privileged against other citizens.
UN texts also promote tolerance: tolerance is acceptance of others with mutual respect and understanding. The UN’s Declaration of Principles on Tolerance defines tolerance as “an active attitude” and a “responsibility that upholds human rights, pluralism (including cultural pluralism), democracy and the rule of law”. It commits the member States to “support and implement programmes of social science research and education for tolerance, human rights and non-violence” and to “educating caring and responsible citizens open to other cultures, able to appreciate the value of freedom, respectful of human dignity and differences, and able to prevent conflicts or resolve them by non-violent means”. Declaration of Principles on tolerance (UNESCO, 1995)

Source 2

EU Guidelines on the promotion and protection of freedom of religion or belief (paragraph 31)

FOREIGN AFFAIRS Council meeting - Luxembourg, 24 June 2013
The new Guidelines provide wide-ranging, practical tools around the world for EU officials, delegations and Member State embassies on understanding, monitoring, and promoting freedom of religion or belief, as well as raising awareness of this right in third countries. They strengthen the EU’s capacity to defend religious freedom both by reacting to violations of freedom of religion or belief (FoRB), and addressing the structural causes that lead to these violations:
31. Freedom of religion or belief and the freedom of expression are interdependent, interrelated and  mutually reinforcing rights, protecting all persons - not religions or beliefs in themselves - and  protecting also the right to express opinions on any or all religions and beliefs. Censorship and  restrictions on the publication and distribution of literature or of websites related to religion or  belief are common violations of both of these freedoms, and impair the ability of individuals and  communities to practice their religion or belief. Limitations to the right to express opinions on religion or belief are a source of great vulnerability for people belonging to religion or belief minorities, but also affect majorities, not least persons holding non-traditional religious views. Taken together, freedom of religion or belief and freedom of expression play an important role in the fight against all forms of intolerance and discrimination based on religion or belief.

Council of the European Union
http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_Data/docs/pressdata/EN/foraff/137585.pdf
FOREIGN AFFAIRS Council meeting - Luxembourg, 24 June 2013

On 24 June 2013, the Council of the European Union adopted the EU Guidelines on the promotion and protection of freedom of religion or belief, in which it reaffirms that it is committed to promoting freedom of religion or belief in its external human rights policy. These guidelines give officials of the EU and Member States practical advice on how to prevent violations of freedom of religion or belief, to analyse concrete cases and respond effectively to violations regardless of where they are committed, in order to promote and protect this freedom in the EU’s external actions. It also clarifies its position in terms of neutrality by stating that it “does not consider the merits of the different religions or beliefs, or the lack thereof, but ensures that the right to believe or not to believe is upheld. The EU is impartial and is not aligned with any specific religion or belief”. The guidelines refer to the article 18 of the UDHR (source 1) adding more details on both freedom of religion and freedom of expression as fundamental right of every human being. The paragraph 31 emphasizes the interdependence between freedom of expression and freedom of religion and enunciates that the right to express critical opinions on religion in general or specific beliefs in particular should be protected by the law. An important point to notice is the fact that this right is a protection granted to persons, but not to belief systems or religions as a whole. This point allows to better understand how the courts can receive the judicial causes of plaintiffs according to they want to defend either religious persons or religious bodies. When dealing with freedom of religion or belief, the EU will grant special attention to eight priority action areas for which it details the content. - See more at: http://www.religiousfreedom.eu/about-us/#sthash.SjXmLIuQ.dpuf EU Guidelines on the promotion and protection of freedom of religion or belief (pdf)

Source 3

Conclusions from Toledo Guiding Principles on Teaching about Religions and Beliefs in Public Schools (OSCE, 2007)

Knowledge about religions and beliefs can reinforce appreciation of the importance of respect for everyone’s right to freedom of religion or belief, foster democratic citizenship, promote understanding of societal diversity and, at the same time, enhance social cohesion. Knowledge about religions and beliefs has the valuable potential of reducing conflicts that are based on lack of understanding for others’ beliefs and of encouraging respect for their rights. Knowledge about religions and beliefs is an essential part of a quality education. It is required to understand much of history, literature, and art, and can be helpful in broadening one’s cultural horizons and in deepening one’s insight into the complexities of past and present. Teaching about religions and beliefs is most effective when combined with efforts to instil respect for the rights of others, even when there is disagreement about religions or beliefs. The right to freedom of religion or belief is a universal right and carries with it an obligation to protect the rights of others, including respect for the dignity of all human beings.
An individual’s personal religious (or non-religious) beliefs do not provide sufficient reason to exclude that person from teaching about religions and beliefs. The most important considerations in this regard relate to professional expertise, as well as to basic attitudes towards or commitment to human rights in general and freedom of religion or belief in particular.
Reasonable adaptations of policies in response to distinctive religious needs may be required to avoid violation of rights to freedom of religion or belief. Even when not strictly required as a matter of law, such adaptations and flexibility contribute to the building of a climate of tolerance and mutual respect.
Where compulsory courses involving teaching about religions and beliefs are sufficiently neutral and objective, requiring participation in such courses as such does not violate the freedom of religion and belief (although states are free to allow partial or total opt-outs in these settings).

Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)
http://www.osce.org/odihr/29154

The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), like other European institutions tries to foster understanding between peoples and the respect of all fundamental rights as they are enacted in the International Declaration of Human Rights (cf. supra, source 1). More specifically, this organization is a creation of the Helsinki Accords (Helsinki Final Act, or Helsinki Declaration was the final act of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe held in Helsinki, Finland, during in 1975). These Accords signed by 35 states, including the USA, Canada, and most European states except Albania, were an attempt to improve relations between the Communist bloc and the West. Among the 10 guiding principles adopted in the final act, the 7th concerned the respect of Human Rights and fundamental freedoms, including freedom of thought, of conscience, of religion, or of conviction.
Among other functions, the OSCE has played a longstanding role in maintaining peace between the different communities in Bosnia and Herzegovina for the end of the civil war in 1995 (it has taken the place of UNO because the Bosnian leadership felt deep contempt for the inability of UN troops to stop the war and to protect civilian people).
In line with the OSCE’s conflict prevention role and its commitment to fostering a culture of mutual respect and understanding, the Advisory Council of the ODIHR Panel of Experts on Freedom of Religion or Belief, together with other experts and scholars, met in Toledo, Spain, in March  to discuss approaches to teaching about religions  and beliefs in public schools in the -state OSCE region (2007). The experts came from a wide range of backgrounds and included leading scholars, policy makers, educators, lawyers, and representatives of inter-governmental and non-governmental organizations.  The Toledo meeting launched an intensive process, involving subsequent meetings in Bucharest and Vienna, and extensive collaboration among members of the Advisory  Council, the larger Panel, and other experts, resulting in the formulation of the  Toledo  Guiding Principles on Teaching about Religions and Beliefs in Public Schools
Read more…conclusions and recommendations: http://www.osce.org/odihr/29154?download=true

This section of the text focuses on the usefulness of knowledge about religions and beliefs as a valuable potential help for reducing conflicts that are based on lack of understanding for others’ beliefs. In order to play this role, this knowledge should be based on scientific data, and independent from any religious creed.

Source 4

European Court upholds French burqa ban

The European Court of Human Rights has upheld a French law banning women from covering their faces in public, affecting Muslim women's rights to wear burqas. The case was filed by a 24-year-old woman last year.
After deliberating over the case for more than half a year, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) ruled on Tuesday that France's law prohibiting people from covering their faces in public was not a violation of human rights.
There was no immediate comment available from the Strasbourg court following the ruling. A 24-year-old woman had filed the case last year, saying that the French law violated her right to privacy, freedom of religion and freedom of expression. Her decision to wear a niqab - a veil with a slit for the wearer's eyes - was her own and had not been imposed on her by her husband or family, she said.
The French law was introduced in 2011 under former President Nicolas Sarkozy and supported by the current socialist government under President Francois Hollande. Violators of the ban face a 150 euro ($203) fine if they wear a full body veil (burqa) or one concealing the entire face except for the eyes (naqib).
During the case, the plaintiff's British lawyer, Tony Muman, described her as a "perfect French citizen with a university education."
"She speaks of her country with passion…She is a patriot," Muman said. While some in France contend the law liberates Muslim woman who are sometimes forced to cover their hair or their faces, Muslims have countered that the ban stigmatizes their religion. Last week, France's top appeals court upheld a ruling in favor of the law in a separate landmark case involving a daycare worker who had been fired for refusing to remove her headscarf while at work. The plaintiff, Fatima Afif, lost her position in 2008. In its ruling, the court cited the private daycare's internal rules which stated that freedom of religion could not stand in the way of the principles of secularism and neutrality. kms/se (AFP, epd, dpa)

From "Deutsche Welle"
Retrieved in
http://www.dw.de/european-court-upholds-french-burqa-ban/a-17748671 (24/07/2015)

The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) is a supranational or international court established by the European Convention on Human Rights adopted within the context of the Council of Europe, and all of its 47 member states are contracting parties to the Convention. The Court is based in Strasbourg, France. It receives applications alleging that a contracting state has violated one or more of the human rights provisions concerning civil and political rights set out in the Convention and its protocols. An application can be lodged by an individual, a group of individuals or one or more of the other contracting states, and, besides judgments, the Court can also issue advisory opinions. In this case, the application concerned a 2011 French law that banned the full covering of the face in the common space. The wearing of niqab (a Muslim integral veil masking completely the face) which was very controversial in the political and societal debate in France would be thus forbidden.
Before the vote of this law, some Muslim associations argued that it would infringe the freedom of religion, especially because it would apply everywhere outside private space (like on the streets), whilst the banning of the “ostensible religious signs” at school (by a French law enacted in 2004) concerned only public institutions like school, not the common public space.
The decision of the ECtHR in this case was guided by the respect of the principle of subsidiarity: the Court recognizes that every European state may have a kind of national sensibility on some topic (the protection of “laïcité” in the case of France) and do not want to interact with it by its decisions.