4. Fundamentalisme i Islam: Det Muslimske Broderskab i Egypten – For Teachers

Roots of Islamic Fundamentalisms

In the nineteenth century most Muslims were aware of the power of Western societies and the relative weakness of Muslim communities. One of the major themes of Muslim history in the modern era is the interaction of Muslims with the West and the efforts to revive and/or reform the world of Islam. The first modern response was to adapt to the new world conditions and utilize Western models in reforming Muslim societies (nahda, reborn movement).
Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī (1838-1897) and MuhammadʿAbduh (1849-1905), reformist and nationalist thinkers, founded a reform movement devoted to a “return to the ancestors (salaf)”, joined government efforts at religious reform. The movement was called Salafiyya. Muhammad Rashīd Riḍā (1865-1935) was profoundly influenced by their writings. He affirmed that the backwardness of Muslim countries resulted from a neglect of true principles of Islam. These principles could be found in the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad and in the practices of the first generation of Muslims, because Rashīd Riḍā was convinced that Islam contained all the principles necessary for happiness in this world and the hereafter, and that positive effort to improve the material basis of the society was of the essence of Islam. Therefore he urged Muslims to emulate the scientific and technological progress made by the West. Besides he wanted rulers in accord with religious authorities consulted for the formulation of governmental policies. Here he showed his tendency to incorporate practices of traditional Islam into the forms of contemporary societies, as the Community consensus (ijmāʿ) institutionalized and equated with the modern parliamentary government. The term ijmāʿ means the consensus among the writings of the historical founders of the Four Juridical-Religious Schools. Since 700ad to 800ad were born four Juridical Religious Schools in order to manage problems about the application of Islamic principles in Muslim societies. Finally Rashīd Riḍā saw the need to unify the Muslim community under a Caliph (supreme religious interpreter of Islam) able to guide Muslim governments. The only way to realize a political and cultural revival.

By the second half of the twentieth century, it became clear that the results of these reform programs were not satisfactory, and new, more revolutionary efforts were undertaken. Among these efforts are the major Islamic fundamentalist movements (Islamist movements), which adopt positions rejecting the simple copying of Western methods and affirming the comprehensive and effective nature of the Islamic message. It is possible distinguish two currents: the Radical Fundamentalism and the Neo-Fundamentalism. Both pursue the same aim: re-islamizising the person and the society. They do that in different ways. Radical Fundamentalists islamize the society from above, conquering the political power by a revolution or a coup d’état, whereasNeo-Fundamentalists islamize the society from below, spreading fundamentalist ideas among students and intellectuals, networks of mosques and care services.
In this period was born the Muslim Brotherhood, one of the main Islamic Neo-Fundamentalist groups, established by Hasan al-Banna in 1929 in Egypt. Al-Banna was inspired by Rashīd Riḍā' s thought.
Another important Islamist movement, based on the Radical Fundamentalism, was that Shiite led by Ayatollah Khomeini (1902–1989) in the Islamic Revolution of Iran in 1979. Islamic Iranian revolution showed the Islamic World that was possible to build a state model on the Law of God assuming a modern organization form, the Republic. In Khomeini's opinion it is only a return to divine law (Sharia) that will restore dignity and justice to the oppressed.

Salafist movements

Some of Islamic fundamentalist movements are called Salafist movements from the Arab term “salaf” (in the origin, ancestor). Most Salafists insist on conformity to a code of conduct based on a literal interpretation of sacred scripture. They also consider that religion encompasses all aspects of life and hence that religion and politics cannot be separated. Theological roots of Salafism are in Ibn Taymiyyah (1263-1328) and  Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb' thought (1703-1792). The first desired a return to the sources of the Muslim religion, which he felt had been altered by the different religious sects or schools. In Ibn Taymiyya's opinion the sources were the Koran and the Sunna (discourses and actions of Muhammad). Only a return to sources, he felt, would permit the disunited Muslim community to refind its unity. The second one, theologian and founder of the Wahhābī movement, even attempted a return to the “true” principles of Islam. 'Abd al-Wahhāb stand against all innovations (bidʿah) in Islamic faith insisting that the original grandeur of Islam could be regained if the Islamic community would return to principles enunciated by the Prophet Muhammad. From the alliance between ʿAbd al-Wahhāb and Ibn Saʿūd (ruler of Saudi Arabia) made Wahhābīsm the dominant force in Arabia till now.

In conclusion, Fundamentalist movements use a religious language and refer to sacred scriptures without worrying to control if their thought accords with  religious tradition developed and recognized by Muslim theologians and jurists in the years. Building a society led by ethic rules according to sacred scriptures and religious laws remains one of Islamic Fundamentalists' principal aims. For this reason Islamists affirm two postulates: the Koran answers man's questions and the need of modern society,  therefore it does not need to get out of Islamic religious and cultural traditions in order to re-found ethical basis of Muslims' modern societies.

The case of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt

Hasan Al‐Bannā established the Muslim Brotherhood (The Ikhwān), an Islamic Neo-Fundamentalist group, in 1929 in Egypt.
Al‐Bannā's nationalist sentiments merged with anticolonialism, he spoke against British military occupation, the Suez Canal Company, foreign control of public utilities, and the extreme gap between the luxurious lifestyles of foreign owners and managers and the miserable conditions of Egyptian employees and servants. Al‐Bannā's message to Arab governments was one of reforming government and society in the spirit and letter of Islam. In the 1940s, the Muslim Brotherhood  was the most popular and respected of nationalist forces in fighting against the British imperialism and military occupation, and against Zionism in Palestine.
After Al‐Bannā' assassination by police on 12 February 1949, Sayyd Qutb joined the Muslim Brotherhood becoming the most famous theoretician of the Muslim Brotherhood and its chief spokesman. Qutb as well as Al‐Bannā' was executed by the regime of president Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1966. Nasser was in the military and a politician, the second president of Egyptian Republic. Qutb influenced Ayatollah Khomeini of Iran as well as such Egyptian militant jihadist groups. Among these also the group responsible for the assassination of Anwar el‐Sadat in 1981. Qutb's principal concern was for the use of jihad (struggle), against Jāhilī (ignorant or pagan) societies, both Western and so‐called Islamic ones, that were in need of a radical transformation.
el-Sadat, after succeeding Nasser in 1970 and needing support against leftists in his government, rehabilitated the Muslim Brotherhood and sought its support. He released members of the Muslim Brotherhood in 1971. In spite of that he refused to grant the Muslim Brotherhood  unconditional legal status as a political party or as a jam῾īyah (private voluntary organization-PVO). In 1979, in the midst of increasing criticism by the Muslim Brotherhood of his peace initiative with Israel, Sadat offered to confer PVO status on the Muslim Brotherhood, as well as to appoint al‐Tilimsanī to the Shūrā Council (upper chamber of parliament), on condition that the Muslim Brothers moderate their criticism of his policies. Al‐Tilimsānī, the third general of the Muslim Brotherhood, rejected Sadat' proposal. Sadat was murdered on 6 October in 1981 but the Muslim Brotherhood was not implicated in the assassination and had by this time established itself as a non-violent opposition movement. With this new image and reality, al‐Tilimsānī made an effort to move the organization into the mainstream of political and social life in Egypt. Under his leadership, the Brotherhood accepted political pluralism and parliamentary democracy.
By 1987 the Muslim Brotherhood formed the Islamic Alliance with the Socialist Labor Party and the Liberal Party to contest that year's parliamentary elections. The Muslim Brotherhood had the dominant position in this alliance. The first priority in the Muslim Brotherhood 's ten‐point platform was the implementation of Sharia (divine Islamic law) because it considered Islam as the solution. The relationship between the Muslim Brotherhood and the Egyptian rulers  has often been conflictual and fluctuating. The Muslim Brotherhood was born as a religious-social movement becoming a political movement, then a political party based on the religion.

 
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The Muslim Brotherhood's time in power

In Mubarak age, since 1981 until 2011, the Brotherhood lived with both tolerance and persecutions waves developing among Egyptian population its welfare where the State was absconding. Indeed, the Brotherhood’s control grew on territory and consequently Muslim brothers succeeded in the Parliament election joining in different parties. Since 2010 at present, Mohammed Badie is the Supreme Guide of the Muslim Brotherhood and  belong to Qutb's thought wing. He has ousted members of the reformist wing from the Brotherhood led by 'Abd al-Mon'eim 'Abu'l-Futuh and has established the Freedom and Justice party.
After protesting (riots called the Arab Spring) by both young men and women secularized in Tahrir square, in order to dismiss Hosni Mubarak from power and to ask Democracy, the Freedom and Justice party won elections. Muhammad Mursi assumed the role of President of Egypt till 2013, when he was removed by a military coup d'etat. Mursi was unable to make important reforms developing the country and he gave himself higher powers than Mubarak, including the judicial power. Besides his home and foreign policies were ambiguous, perhaps more focused on interests of the Brotherhood than population's needs. The first refers to Mursi's attempt at introducing norms directly inspired by Sharia in the Egyptian Constitution, such as his closeness to Salafist groups who poorly tolerate Christians (Coptic), Shiites and homosexual people. While the second one refers to the Brotherhood's ties with Hamas in Gaza and Muslim brothers in Syria.
Since 2013 the Muslim Brotherhood's activity is interdicted, its properties are confiscated and headquarters closed in Egypt. The country is led by the military 'Abd al-Fattāḥ Khalīl al-Sīsī.