6. From Sunnah to Sunnism

Introduction
Sunnism - the “middle way” - emerged as the “right balance” among schismatic tendencies (Kharijites, Shiites, etc.) but also as an alternative to theological and legal doctrines considered as alterations of the Tradition and as a source of discord among Muslims. Sunnism considered itself as the only mode of thinking capable of preserving the cohesion of the Community. It became a major trend in Islam. The term “Sunnism” is a Western neologism from the Arabic word sunnah. In the Arabic language used by the tribes of the peninsula, sunnah was the path that, in the desert, led men on the right track. It was also the tradition of the elders imposed on the tribe. The Quranic term Sunnah refers both to the way of acting and to the Law according to Allāh (sunnat Allāh). In what context - and against whom - did the Sunni tradition start? What about the main policies on theological and political issues that were discussed in the formative period of Islam - fidelity to the Sunnah, the nature of God, the legitimacy of rulers?
Source 1



The Shahada, the Formal Confession of Faith

There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is his messenger.

La Shahâda, first pillar of the faith.




The place of the Shahada in faith according to Sharastani

It is true that the Prophet was not satisfied with mere saying of the Shahāda which was not based on inner conviction, but, on the other hand, he did not impose upon all men the duty of knowing God as he really is, for that was evidently something beyond capacity of all men.

Sharastānī (1086-1153), Persian philosopher and theologian. Quoted by T. Izutsu in: The Concept of Belief in Islamic Theology, Tokyo, 1965, p. 180.

The Formal Confession of Faith was always recited in Arabic, as the first of the Five pillars of worship imposed on every Muslim. It was based on surah 112 of the Quran: "Say, “He is Allah, the One, Allah, the Eternal Refuge; He neither begets nor is born; nor is there to Him any equivalent." This statement meant a major break from polytheisms and from the Christian theology of the Trinity. The Attestation set up the framework for the "True Religion" and for the main dogma of Islam.
This profession of faith was a twofold attestation, as the public declaration of a double belief: belief in one God and belief in his messenger Muhammad. The historical background of this profession of faith is still little known, both for its religious formulation and for its consecration by the Tradition. Most of the oldest Shahāda engraved in Arabic in the territories of the first expansion of Islam, from Arabia to Syria, only included the first part of the profession of faith, unlike the traditional Shahāda. They did not mention the mission of Muhammad.
The Shiites had the same Shahāda than Sunnis, but some Twelvers [see Islam module I page 5] added: "’Alī is the vicegerent of God."
The Shahāda reaffirmed the oneness of God (tawhīd), a main issue in theological controversies from the 8th century to the 12th century. It opposed in particular the "reasoners" to the scholars against dialectic, who rejected their logical rigour and preferred to refer to the Holy Texts only. The issue of tawhīd was a source of religious and political divisions - particularly the question of God’s eternal attributes and God’s “physical” attributes (the “hand” of God, the “face” of God, etc.).
Shahrastānī was a Persian philosopher who taught at the famous Nizamiyyā of Baghdad. He made a distinction between lay people and the elite, the only one to access knowledge. As a theologian and a historian of "sects" and religious doctrines, he was involved in the controversies run by legal theologians on the position of the Shahāda in the belief. Was the Shahāda sufficient to assess one’s faith, as taught by Ibn Karrām in the 9th century? Was it necessary to back it up with theological texts? Halfway from extreme thinking - sometimes called "abominable innovations" by critics -, most Sunnis defined the belief (Īmān) through three components: knowledge of the heart (tasdīq), assessment by the language (Iqrār) and theological works ('amal).
Out of 196 countries worldwide, 64 countries chose religious symbols for their national flag (stars, crescent, etc.), including 21 Muslim countries. Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan and Somaliland included the Shahāda on their national flag. Radical Muslim organizations (Hamas, Sunni jihadists, etc.) put it on their black flag, also called the "flag of Tawheed".

Source 2

Inscription stating the founding of the madrasa in Cairo under Saladin (1080)

This college was built at the instance of the shaykh, faqīh* , imām... and ascetic Najm al-Dīn, the pillar of Islam, exemplar of mankind Abul Barakat al-Khabushani... for the benefit of those learned faqīh disciples of al-Shāfî'ī, who are distinguished by their firm doctrinal base (in contrast to) other vain raisonners and innovators.

*Faqīh: lawyer

Quoted by André Raymond in: Cairo, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2000, p. 103.

The inscription of the al-Nasiriyah madrasa (dated 1180) has been preserved at the Islamic Museum in Cairo. The inscription did not mention Sultan Saladin. The madrasa was founded under the auspices of al-Khabushani, a religious authority who was highly respected by Saladin, but described as stubborn by his opponents. Al-Khabushani vigorously fought the Hanbali lawyers whom he hated, as well as the “argumentative” theologians (Mu'tazilites) and all the "innovations" that were harmful for the community of Muslims. A madrasa is a college for religious studies. The inscription that was on the madrasa clearly condemned “deviant” doctrines and "innovations". The madrasa was built next to the famous shrine of al-Shāfi'ī [see Islam module II page 4], the centre of a great popular devotion to this day. During its early years, Sunnism faced extremely violent internal conflicts between legal schools in Cairo and in Baghdad. Founded by Saladin, the Ayyūbid dynasty (1171-1250) created numerous madrasas in major cities from Syria to Egypt. The text of this inscription referred to the main opponents of the Sunni tradition. The "arguers" were Mu'tazilite theologians. Their doctrine, based on logical arguments, recognized the right to revolt, and claimed that the Word of God was not only created but also inscribed in time and in a particular context. Theologians defending the Sunnah rejected the ideas actively spread by the Mu'tazilites and their subsequent "innovations" distorting the only way to follow - the way that had received the consensus of the community.