2.The convivencia in Al-Andalus

Muslim Spain was a religious and ethnic mosaic. In the 8th century, although the Spanish-Roman and Visigothic populations were indistinguishable, they were viewed consistently as Christian, with the assurances and responsibilities of the dhimma. The Arab-Muslim influence was experienced in two ways.  
Some decided to remain Christian but adopted the customs and key elements of Arab culture. They were called Mozarabs, from the Arabic musta’rab (“Arabized”). However, this form of assimilation faced resistance, as in the case of the martyrs of Cordoba, who were executed between 850 and 859 for having offended Islam in asserting their non-Arab Christian identity. A second wave of Mozarabs comprised Muslims who had converted to Christianity, especially after the Christian conquests that followed the capture of Toledo (1085). The Mozarabs developed an original liturgy and language.
The situation of the Mozarabs deteriorated by the end of the 11th century. In places that had been captured, the Church and the lay authorities tried to assimilate the populations that were viewed primarily as Christian: the Mozarab liturgy was abolished in 1086 and progressively the sovereigns stopped considering Mozarabs as a specific group. In Al-Andalus, the rigorism of the Almoravids led to barely any form of tolerance towards non-Muslims. In 1126, many Mozarabs were expelled to the Maghreb, where they ended up converting to Islam. Others fled to the north of the Iberian peninsula, where they were absorbed.
Other Spanish-Goths converted to Islam, primarily to avoid paying the djizya, the tax demanded from the dhimmī. They were Muslimahs (Islamized people), but particularly Muladíes, from the Arabic mūwallad (mixed-race), since they were born in mixed couple families. Sometimes, after being captured, the Muladíes converted to Christianity. The Muladíes preserved their own identity and did not always have friendly relations with the Arabs and Berbers, who prevailed in the society of Al-Andalus, hence the outbreak of sporadic revolts.
The Jewish community of the Iberian peninsula represented about 5% of the population. After the 7th century, Jews were repeatedly persecuted by the Visigothic powers and church. During the Emirate / Caliphate of Cordoba (756-1031), particularly after the 10th century, Spanish Jewish culture experienced a golden age and Cordoba became a key place to study the Talmud. Jewish scholars had a very important role in the transmission of knowledge by translating from Arabic into Romance languages or from Hebrew and Greek into Arabic. In the second half of the 11th century the situation of Jews deteriorated. In 1066, most of the Jewish population of Granada was killed by a Muslim mob. The arrival of the Almoravids followed by the Almohads weakened their situation even more, particularly after the abolition of the dhimma by the Almohads. The situation of Moses Maimonides [see module on Judaism I, section 3 and Judaism II, section 3] is particularly indicative: his philosophy originated from the Jewish thought of Al-Andalus and he had to flee Spain with his family after refusing to convert to Islam and getting almost killed.
Although conquerors were united by Islam, there were also tensions between the Arabs, who were part of the Muslim elite, and the Berbers, who were numerically superior. The tensions often escalated to revolts and can explain the times when Al-Andalus was divided in taifas, which were often Berber or Arab. In the long term, however, these differences tapered off as the Berbers became Arab.  
Despite moments of tension, the convivencia seemed to have allowed fruitful exchanges. Al-Andalus was also one of the most important places of Islamic thought. Abd al-Rahman III (r. 919-961) was a patron of science. Some of the most important philosophers in the Muslim world came from Al-Andalus: Ibn Rush (Averroes) (1126-1198). But it is important to note that his monumental commentary on Aristotle achieved posterity mainly in the Christian world since his work faced the hostile interpretations of the Almohad court that was opposed to rationalism.