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Fransk- Hvor mange århundreder ligger mellem de arabiske krigeres erobring af Egypten og denne tekst skrevet af Athanasius? Hvilken tilstand befandt det koptiske sprog sig i på Athanasius’ tid?
- Hvem var kopterne? Hvilken religion havde de?
- Hvorfor og for hvem skrev Athanasius af Qus sin arabisksprogede grammatik over det koptiske sprog?
- Hvilket symbol afslører, at der er tale om et helligt sted?
- Identificér de to skriftsprog.
- Hvorfor er denne indskrift fra 1800-tallet tosproget?
- Hvilken funktion havde en qadi i muslimsk religion?
- Hvordan forholdt muslimsk skik sig til forstødte kvinder?
- Hvordan straffede Ibn Battusta de skyldige?
- Hvad fortæller denne tekst om islamiseringen af Maldiverne i 1300-tallet set gennem en marokkansk jurists øjne? Marokko blev erobret i slutningen af 600-tallet og gennemgik en islamiseringsproces på det tidspunkt.
- Hvad er Marokkos officielle religion?
- Hvilken form for politisk styre har Marokko for tiden?
- Marokko anerkender flere forskellige kulturer; hvilke?
- Hvilken rolle spiller amazighkulturen (også kaldet tamazightkultur)? Er dens sprog ligestillet med arabisk? Hvad er dets nuværende status (siden 2011)?
3. Arabization and islamization< – For teachers
Arabic is the language of the Quran as well as the language of prayers, the language of the Islamic Holy Scriptures and the language of religious sciences (exegesis, theology and law). The Arabic language has been of great prestige among Muslims. Arabic also was the language of science during the "Golden Age" of Islam, from the mid-8th to the 13th century. The adoption of Arabic – through a process that is little known until now - contributed to unify the territories of Islam, from the Maghreb to the Fertile Crescent and to the Horn of Africa. Arabization preceded Islamization in Syria, in Iraq, in Egypt (the heart of the conquest) and in al-Andalus.
The languages spoken before Islamization vanished except for a few, like Kurdish or Berber. For example, Coptic and Syriac now are only liturgical languages. In the Arab-Muslim world, Quranic Arabic, the language of the conquerors, gradually imposed itself to the converted. As the language of the authority, Arabic was adopted in the administration and in the army. It also became the language of culture for many, both inside and outside the Arab-Muslim world.
A good example is the example of Egypt, conquered in 640 when the Arabs started their rapid expansion out of their "Island" - the Arabian Peninsula. What happened in Egypt shows that the slow processes of Arabization and Islamization are not synonymous. In 640, Egypt was Christian. It became an imperial province from the mid-7th century to the mid-10th century, before being the centre of the Fatimid power until the Ottomans. The use of Arabic supplanted the use of Coptic. The Arabization of Egypt cannot be considered an ethnic process, because the Arab population only represented a small percentage of the population living in conquered Egypt. Arabic was adopted as the language of administration and the main language in cities more than two centuries after the conquest.
Islamization - slower than Arabization – probably reached the Egyptian society in the middle of the 14th century, with the exception of some Coptic Christian bastions. Arabization in Egypt was strengthened by including the pre-Islamic cultural legacy. A literature of "merits" written in Arabic praised pharaohs and prophets who stayed in Egypt, and also praised holy women, for example Hāgar, Abraham's concubine, and Mary the Copt, the mother of Prophet Muhammad’s only son. Arabization was completed in the 14th century: Athanasius of Qūs, Bishop of Upper Egypt, wrote in Arabic a grammar of Coptic, by then a dead language.
Fourteen centuries after the birth of Islam, twenty sovereign States in Africa and Asia hold Arabic as their only official language or their only "co-official" language (with Hebrew in Israel since the British mandate, or with Kurdish in Iraq). Of these countries, twenty-two are members of the Arab League. The Arabic alphabet - or a derivative of this alphabet – has been used to write many languages, for example Turkish until the reforms of Atatürk, Persian or Malay.
Islamization is a slow process with different stages, as shown by the peregrinations of the Moroccan traveller Ibn Battūta, of Berber origin, in the 14th century. Ibn Battūta devoted his whole life to explore the territories of Islam, and travelled in the three geographical areas where Islam was expanding: Africa, India and the Turkish world. At the time, this vast Asian-African aggregate was still fragmented into kingdoms and principalities, but already formed a community united by the bonds of Islam. The traveller, who would later be called the "Marco Polo of Islam", was also surprised by some customs in the Islamized populations. To his eyes, they were not in accordance with the principles of the "true religion" as observed in his native Morocco.
Introduction to religious traditions | Introduktion til Islam 1: Islams historie
3. Arabificering og islamisering
De store arabiske erobringer – fra Maghreb til Iran – blev efterfulgt af konverteringer til Islam og af de overvundnes antagelse af det arabiske sprog. Men både arabificeringen og islamiseringen er processer, der har omformet de pågældende samfund i forskellige tempi, og disse dybtgående forandringers forløb kan hverken opsummeres kort eller koges ned til én fælles model. Men det er dog muligt at understrege en række vigtige fælles træk. Arabificering medfører ikke nødvendigvis konvertering til Islam, og konvertering til Islam betyder ikke nødvendigvis, at man afstår fra at videreføre lokale traditioner. Deres respektive konverteringer til Islam til trods var nogle befolkninger i den arabisk-muslimske verden i stand til at bibeholde deres sprog, men uden for middelhavsområdet og Mellemøsten var oprindelige sprog dog endnu mere modstandsdygtige. En slags genopblomstring fandt sted med hensyn til det persiske sprog fra 900-tallet, hvor det sassanidiske imperiums officielle sprog (som blev brugt både i religiøs og i litterær sammenhæng) blev blandet med en vis mængde arabisk input. Nogle religiøse samfund har modstået konverteringsbevægelsen, såsom de egyptiske koptere, der nu repræsenterer det første kristne samfund i den arabisk-muslimske verden.
Biskop Athanasius af Qus’ kommentarer:
“If some of them [its readers] learn Coptic with great difficulty by spending much time on it, they come to nothing but read the phrases, not without deficiency, and without understanding what they say; they talk to themselves in an unintelligible language and become barbarians to themselves.”
Biskop Athanasius af Qus. Citeret af J.C. Garcin, ”L’arabisation de l’Égypte”, Revue des mondes musulmans et de la Méditerranée, 1987, nr. 43, s. 131. Oversat af Marie Lebert.
Da Egypten, som på det tidspunkt var en byzantinsk provins, blev erobret i 641, taltes der to sprog i landet: græsk (i administrative forhold) og koptisk, den seneste version af det gamle egyptiske sprog. Arabificeringen af de kristne, som benyttede det koptiske sprog, var langsommere end for de mellemøstlige befolkningsgrupper. I århundrederne efter erobringen af Egypten var arabisk ikke alene statssproget, men også kultursproget og sågar det sprog, der blev benyttet i kristen teologisk sammenhæng. Koptisk blev endeligt opgivet i perioden omkring 900 til midten af 1000-tallet. Alligevel oplevede kopterne i 1100-tallet en kulturel guldalder, hvor den koptisk-arabiske litteratur genopstod, nu skrevet på arabisk. Dette fik Athanasius, en lærd mand bosat i Qus i det Øvre Egypten i 1300-tallet, til at skrive en detaljeret og arabisksproget grammatik over koptiske dialekter i brug i det Øvre og Nedre Egypten; værket var tiltænkt en læserskare bestående af lærde og munke.
Fra den koptiske kirke i den gamle del af Kairo
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Denne indskrift på den koptiske kirke i den gamle del af Kairo, dateret til 1899, citerer Johannes-evangeliet (4:13-14) på både koptisk, de kristne egypteres liturgiske sprog, og arabisk:
”I Gud, den barmhjertiges, navn: Enhver som drikker af dette vand, skal tørste igen. Men den, der drikker af det vand, jeg vil give ham, skal aldrig i evighed tørste.”.
Ibn Battutas ophold på Maldiverne
“When I became qazi [qadi], I strove with all my might to establish the rule of law (shariat). Litigations are not there as in Morocco. The first of the bad customs which I abolished was that requiring the divorced wives to stay in the houses of their erstwhile husbands. The divorced wife had to stay in the house of the man who had divorced her until she had married another man. I cut it at the very root. Some twenty-five men were brought before me for acting in that way and I had them whipped and paraded round the bazaars, and I caused the women to be removed from their houses. Then I pressed for the saying of congregational prayers and ordered that men should hurry through the streets and bazaars after the Friday prayer; those who were found not having attended the prayer were whipped and publicly disgraced. […] Finally I endeavoured to compel women to wear clothes, but I was not able to get this done.”
Uddrag af kapitel 16 af: The Rehla of Ibn Battuta – India, Maldive Islands and Ceylon, oversat og kommenteret af Dr. Mahdi Husain, Oriental Institute, Baroda, Indien, 1976.
Ibn Battuta, middelalderens mest berømte arabiske opdagelsesrejsende, rejste i løbet af 28 år tusindvis af kilometer, særligt i de nyligt islamiserede områder. Hans selvbiografiske fortælling blev dikteret til en andalusisk sekretær ved hoffet i Fez, Marokko, som nedældede den på arabisk. Denne ”Islams rejsendes” færd fra Marokko til Kina var motiveret af forskellige ting, blandt andet ønsket om at studere, foretage en pilgrimsrejse, opnå status. Ibn Battuta påbegyndte sin rejse i en alder af tyve og betragtede sig selv som en religiøs videnskabsmand, men man ved intet om hans uddannelsesmæssige baggrund. Han opholdt sig på Maldiverne i atten måneder; denne øgruppe består af en omtrent 800 kilometer land krans af øer og var fra midten af 1100-tallet et sultanat. I kraft af sin viden om jura og om arabiske videnskaber indsatte Ibn Battuta sig selv som qadi (’dommer’). Fra denne magtfulde position i et nyligt islamiseret samfund, der ikke talte flydende arabisk, forsøgte Ibn Battuta at indføre islamiske normer, særligt med hensyn til kvinder, men det lykkedes ham ikke altid lige godt.
Uddrag af den marokkanske forfatning, 2011
“Preamble.
A sovereign Muslim State, attached to its national unity and to its territorial integrity, the Kingdom of Morocco intends to preserve, in its plenitude and its diversity, its one and indivisible national identity. Its unity, forged by the convergence of its Arab-Islamist, Tamazight [or Amazigh] and Saharan-Hassanic* components, is nourished and enriched by its African, Andalusian, Hebraic and Mediterranean influences. The pre-eminence accorded to the Muslim religion in the national reference is consistent with the attachment of the Moroccan people to the values of openness, of moderation, of tolerance and of dialog for mutual understanding between all the cultures and the civilizations of the world.
Article 5.
Arabic is the official language of the State. The State works for the protection and for the development of the Arabic language, as well as the promotion of its use. Likewise, Tamazight [or Amazigh*] constitutes an official language of the State, being common patrimony of all Moroccans without exception.”
*Saharan-Hassanic: term der beskriver den hassansktalende befolkning i den del af Sahara, som ligger i det sydlige Marokko.
*Amazigh (or Tamazight): et berbersprg der tales af ca. 50% af den marokkanske befolkning.
Den marokkanske forfatning, 2011.
Berberne i Marokko udgør omkring halvdelen af den marokkanske befolkning. I et forsøg på at imødekomme berberbevægelsens krav – bevægelsen er blevet mere og mere politisk orienteret siden 1990erne – meddelte Kong Mohammed VI i sin trontale i 2001, at et kongeligt institut for berbisk amazighkultur skulle oprettes. Ti år senere legitimerede den reviderede forfatning fra 2011 som del af et inkluderende træk amazighernes identitet. Men identitetsdiskursen gør nu krav på enten en bedre integration af amazigherne i kulturlivet såvel som i regeringen eller en højere grad af anerkendelse af berbernes samfund i forhold til det arabiske. Amazighspørgsmålet rækker ud over Marokkos grænser og angår også Algeriet, Libyen, Mali og Niger. Det har desuden tiltrukket sig international opmærksomhed, fordi bevægelsen har stillet krav med henvisning til menneskerettigheder.
